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Evolution of Hindustani and Carnatic music (1200-1857AD)
In European history the Middle Ages belong to the period 476 to 1453 AD. The term has been borrowed here to represent 13th to middle 19th century. This period started with the Muslim invasion of North Western India in 1207 AD lasted 650 years ending with the advent of British Raj and direct involvement of British crown in Indian polity in 1857, after the war - variously described as First war of independence or sepoy mutiny.
The rule of Muslim kings over much of North India starting around 1200 AD had profound impact on India. Music being dependent on kings and aristocracy for patronage was also greatly impacted. Also, the invaders brought great cultures and languages with them, which was assimilated by the Indian culture giving raise to a new unique culture. This resulted in bifurcation of ancient Indian music into two distinct styles - North Indian called Hindustani and South Indian called Carnatic.
Islamic Influence And Evolution Of Hindustani Music
When Hinduism encountered Islam, it was a confluence of two major civilization streams. Over generations, this resulted in a harmonious blending of different cultural elements - costume, cuisine, language, music and dance. Indian Classical music emerged as two separate traditions - north Indian Hindustani and the south indian Carnatic, mainly because of this Islamic influence. Muslim kings ruled over much of North India for nearly 700 years. Much of aristocracy was culturally Persian.
Given that most of the arts, esp. music, was supported by kings and aristocracy, it should come as no surprise that musicians adopted their styles to suit the tastes of their pay-masters. Also, the slow and indirect influence of
Persian music on Indian was to be expected.
The most important changes relate to the change of style to a more melodious and fanciful form, emergence of new musical forms like Khayal and Ghazal and emergence of several new instruments like Sitar, Sarod and Tabla. Dhrupad the earliest form of Hindustani music, emerged around 13th century and reached its pinnacle during the reign of Mughal emperor Akbar.
Khayal which originated during 18th century, can be thought of as the ultimate blending of Indian musical theory and Persian musical expression. Ghazal as a poetic form started around 10th century in Persia and came into prominence in India after urdu started developing as the language of poetry in Indian courts.
The Hindustani system may be thought as a mixture of traditional Indian musical concepts and Persian performance practice. The advent of Islamic rule over Northern India may have caused the musicians to seek patronage in the courts of the new rules. For instance the word tabla is a generic term for drum in Arabic language. It is possible that concept of time of a Raag has also come from Persia, since this concept is absent in Carnatic music and present in Persian music.
Muslim rule also had negative effects on Indian music. Strict interpretations of Islam (as barring music) by some rulers, like Aurangzeb, drove music underground and into realm of social outcasts at times.
The First Contact - Arabic Rule in Sind
In 711 AD, about 100 years after the establishment of Islam, Sind was conquered by a small Arab army (and incidentally about the same time Islam captured Spain). They could not, however, make much headway into rest of India because of strong Gurjara and Rajput rulers to the east. Arab rule of Sind continued for the next several centuries, till it was integrated under the Delhi Sultanates.
This was an important contact between Islam and Hindu civilizations. Hindu arts, mathematics and sciences (esp. astronomy) were taken to the great centers of Islamic learning like Baghdad and from there spread to Europe.
This was how the decimal number writing system of India spread to Europe (by the name of "Arabic numerals"). Many of Indian musical ideas and instruments made it to Arabic world, either through this Sind connection or through Persia.
Muslim rule in North India
In the medieval period, starting around 1200 AD, Delhi and much of North India was ruled by Muslim kings till the British colonization started in 18th century. Various foreign muslim invaders established their dynasties, starting with the defeat of Prithviraj Chauhan by Mohammed of Gauri in 1192 AD Prominent dynasties were the slave dynasty (1206-1290), Khalji (1290-1320), Tughlak (1320-1414), Sayyids (1414-1451), Lodhi (1451-1526), Moghuls (1526-1707). Most of them were either central asian Turks or Afghani. But their language and culture mostly Persian. This resulted in the huge influence of Persian on the languages and arts of north India. It should not be presumed that the influence was a one way street. Indian music greatly influenced Persian music too. According to a tale king Bahram Gour of Persia invited many musicians from Kanauj ruled by his father-in-law King Shankel. Many of the Radifs (Persian equivalent of Raag) have come from India - Ramkli (RamKali), Denasari (Dhanashree). Infact arabic name for color (Rang) has come from Raag (which means color in sanskrit). Arabic name for Raaga is Rock and several of them, like Abdullah Rock, Indian Rock, Kashmiri Rock , have come from India. Among instruments persian instrument Van is the Indian Veena.
Birth Of Dhrupad (1300 A.D.)
Dhrupad is the oldest form of Hindustani. It is still in use, though it has been in decline since 18th century. Dhrupad evolved as a form of religious temple music, from the existing form of music of the period called Prabandha. The word Dhrupad is derived from Dhruva Pada, meaning fixed word or composition, probably referring to pre-composed form of music. It is difficult to date the beginning of Dhrupad. Sangita Ratnakara does not mention Dhrupad, but by the time of Amir Khusro it seems to have been in use. So we can place the beginning between late 12th century and early 13th century. It was first brought to the royal court by Raja Man Singh Tomar of Gwalior (1486-1517 AD) and for the next our centuries it was the main form of classical music in North India.
Sufi Movement
Sufism developed as the mystical form of Islam. Unlike the orthodox Muslims who rejected music of any kind on the purported sayings of Prophet Mohammed (PBUH), Sufi saints saw music has the vehicle through which to realize and experience God. In this sense they were similar to the saints of the Bhakthi movement.
In Persia, Sufi poets like Jalal al-Din Rumi, composed devotional poems of love and philosophy. These were often composed and sung in the musical forms of the day. With the establishment of muslim rule in India, some Sufi saints came to India and settled down, starting many sufi orders in India. The contribution of these sufi orders to Indian music is immense.
More importantly, sufi saints gave an alternate philosophy which accepted music within the frame work of Islam as opposed to the strict intolerance of orthodox schools of Islam. Thus we come across devout muslim musicians as well as intolerant muslim rulers who influenced Indian music, though in opposite ways.
Khwaja Muinuddin Hasan of Ajmer was the Chisti order in India (1206 A.D.). Hazrat Nizamuddin Awlia (1258-1325 A.D.) was perhaps the most important of the Sufis of the period and belonged to this Chisti order. A disciple of Hazrat Baba Farid, he came to Delhi when he was 25. After the death of Baba Farid he led the Chisti order and admitted so many men into the Chisti order. So, to far-flung areas of Uttar Pradesh, Rajastan, Gujarat, Bihar, Bengal and the Deccan, Hazrat Nizamuddin Awlia sent able disciples well versed in the Chishti practices, yet sensitive to the needs of the local populace. The philosophy of Sufi saints was inclusive and they taught religious tolerance. Their disciples included people of both faiths. Popular later day poet Kabir belonged to this order, so did Nanak the founder of Sikh religion. One of Nizamuddin Awlia contemporaries was Amir Khusro Dehlavi, both a friend and a disciple.
Amir Khusro Dehlavi (1253-1325 A.D.)
Perhaps the most famous instance of persian influence on Indian music is that of the father of modern north Indian music, Amir Khusro Dehlavi (1253-1325 AD), of Turkish descent on the father's side and Indian on the mother's side. He was the court poet and musician throughout the reign of Khalji kings.
Amir Khusro is credited with the creation of Qwawalii (present day Qawwali) form of north Indian music, by modifying Dhrupad by adding Persian melody and beat to it. Qawwali is the muslim devotional song, much like the hindu bhajan. Amir Khusro has become a figure of myth, with all kinds of inventions erroneously credited to him ... like that of Sitar and Tabla. Qwawali stayed as the most important form of court music under Delhi Sultanate.
Sudhakalasa's Sangitopanishad Sarodhara (1350 AD)
This is a rare treatise on music and dance written by Vachanacharya Sudhakalasa, a Jain scholar of Gujarat in 1350 AD It has 6 chapters dealing with gita, tala, raga, vadya, nritya and nritya paddhathi. This is an important book belonging to a period when Gujarat had been taken over by Muslim rulers and all aspects of life were changing. It says that prabandha song-type was no longer current, and probably Dhrupad was gaining ground. It gives the 'paata' or 'vocalization of drum strokes' that accompanies the description of a tala, probably a precursor of present day 'theka' of the tabla. Percussion instruments dholla and tabla are mentioned by Sudhakalasa as the drums of the foreigners.
Ghunyat-ul-Munya (1374 AD)
The earliest Persian work on Indian Music is Ghunyat-ul-Munya (meaning the songs of desire), written around 1374 AD, by an unknown author in the court of Malik Abu, governor of Gujarat. The author, as the contents of the book attest, mostly relied on the Sanskrit works, however, he fully observes the technique of music and dance as properly practiced during his time. In his introduction, he testifies that he benefited from Indian sources such as Sangita Ratnakara, Matanga and Bharatha. The author The book is divided into two parts, the first on songs and its characteristics, and the second on dance and its features. He describes, 22 shrutis, 25 swaras. Then he describes 42 Raagas - like som rag, maloseri, belawali, gandehara, sodbengal, gujeri, birari, ramkeri, dhanaseri, dumekri, gavari, sortehi, chehayanat, bahivari and palat. He has also described Alapana, Gamakas and Moorchanas.
Most of the musical instruments listed and described also have been illustrated through well-drawn sketches. The dance-movements, poses and gestures too were maintained to be shown in corresponding drawings. Among the instruments he names, marak, pakavaj, disi, petvaj, tol, kahan, kansal, jikahant, jahlari, kerkech, mohri, boq, singa and kahali may be mentioned.
The Mughuls (1526-1857 AD)
The most important, politically and culturally, dynasty of Indian muslim kings was that of Mughals. Mughal dynasty started with Babar defeating Ibrahim Lodhi in 1526 and continued till Aurangzeb's death in 1707. Minor mughal kings ruled Delhi until 1857, when Bahadur Shah Zafar was finally banished to Rangoon. These years saw the emergence of Dhrupad as the main style of music in the courts of north India. That was also the beginning of Khayal and Ghazal as styles of music which came into prominence later. Nayak Bhakshu, an eminent Dhrupad singer and composer served in the court of Humayun the second emperor after Babar. It was during this period that Dhrupad became the court music of Mughal emperors. Later a thousand of his lyrics were collected under orders from Emeror Shah Jahan and are called Sahasras or Hazar Dhurpad.
During the reign of Akbar several prominent dhrupad artists flourished.Most prominent among them was Tansen. Tansen is credited with reshaping the entire of Dhruvapada music by the addition of new Persian ornamentations in Meend, Gamaka etc. He is also credited with the development of the Rabab (Rudra-Veena). Tansen also created many new ragas which, up till now, are regarded as the foremost ragas of Northern India.
Some of these are noteworthy, e.g. Darbari Kanada, Darbari Todi, Miya ki Malhar, Miya ki Sarang. Other famous musicians in Akbar's court were Baiju Bawra, Ramdas and Tanrang. Just like Amir Khusro, with Tansen it is difficult to separate myth from reality. Stories and myths about him and his duels with Baiju Bawra abound. Almost every major Gharana of present day Hindustani trace their lineage to Tansen. Swami Haridas of Brindavan who is considered the guru of Tansen was an influential musician during that time.
Akbar's son Jahangir(1605-1627) and grandson Shah Jahan(1627-1658) were both great patrons of art and music flourished under their rule. Various disciples of Swami Haridas (and Tansen) spreadout and became court musicians in various small kingdom's in the Mughal empire like Jaipur, Punjab, Gwalior, Lucknow etc. The famous Seni Gharanas were founded by the sons of son-in-law of Tansen.
Aurangzeb (1658-1707), a religious fanatic, During the tenth year of his reign, banned music. He forbade its presence in court as well as all public performances. Court officials entered households and smashed musical instruments. Aurangzeb's dislike of music is well illustrated in a common story. It appears that during his administration a group of musicians, disheartened with their lack of patronage, took some musical instruments and wrapped them in the manner of a corpse and held a funeral procession in protest. Aurangzeb enquires about the procession and is told it is a burial to signify the death of music. Whereupon it is said that the emperor declares, "Good! bury it so deep that never a sound should be heard again". Musicians either went underground or simply took up other means of livelihood. The situation can be compared to the fate of Iranian music after the Islamic revolution of 1979. Mughal empire broke up soon after the death of Aurangzeb. Provential governors declared independence and Mughal emperor's authority didn't reach far outside Delhi's redfort. But, music did come back to the court in Delhi. Beginning of Khayal style of Hindustani music can be traced to the court of Muhammad Shah 'Rangile' (1720-1748). Popularly called Rangile because of his patronage of arts. But repeated external attacks on the empire by Afghans, Persians and others was not conducive to it. The last emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar II (1837-1857) was a great patron of music and literature. Music, esp. Ghazals, flourished in his court. With the defeat of Indian kings in the first was of independence, the emperor was exiled to Rangoon bringing an end to the Mughal empire and 650 years of Muslim rule in Delhi.
The Birth of Khayal
Just like the rest of Indian musical history, there are disputes as to the origin of Khayal (also spelt as Khyal by some). Literally Khayal means Imagination in Persian. Many believe that Khayal and Qawwali were started by the legendary Amir Khusro. Some others note the closeness of the word Khayal to that of Qawwal and say Khayal originated from Qawwali.
Some place the origin of Khayal to Jaunpur King, Sultan Hussein Shah Sharqi (ruled 1452-1489). Considering most of the Khayal Gharanas were originally Dhrupad gharanas,it is safe to say Khayal originated as a leisurely form of Dhrupad with more ornamentation and improvisation, signifying a major Persian influence on this form. For khayal, the first musical evidence of court support is noted at the Delhi darbar (court) of the eighteenth century Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah Rangile (ruled 1720-48), where the musicians Nyamat Khan with penname of Sadarang (1670-1748) and Firoz Khan with the penname of Adarang composed songs that have been transmitted to the present time. It is believed that Sadarang and Adarang also formalized the structure of modern day khayal.
Whatever be the origin of Khayal style, no doubt Dhrupad was the style that received patronage from kings and aristocracy till the time of later Mughal emperors, probably starting with Muhammad Shah. The Dhrupad compositions and style was serious and mostly in Sanskrit phraseology.
Khayal compositions on the other hand were in commonly spoken language and the theme was mostly romantic. The singing style consequently was leisurely, ornamented and given to improvisation. Also, not being part of the religious ritual it was necessarily fostered outside the places of worship; hence an element of physical pleasure, particularly of the courtier, became predominant.
Further development of Khayal took place in various Gharanas, each evolving a distinctive style of singing. Each of the Gharanas have long histories and lineages which go back to early schools of music after Tansen. The gharanas had princely support in the later mogul and then British periods. Most of the Gharanas are named after the princely states that supported artists. Artists guarded their khayal compositions and musical style like heirloom passing the knowledge orally from generation to generation mostly within the family.
Another important development was the invention of numerous instruments like Tabla, Sitar, Sarod etc which changed the face of Hindustani music. Pakhavaj the percussion instrument used in Dhrupad, was probably found unsuitable as the accompaniment in Khayal. This must have given raise to the development of a more suitable percussion instrument, culminating in Tabla. The word Tabla is derived from 'Tabl', a generic Arabic term referring to any percussion instrument. Some see a connection with the Turkish term Tawal. Reference to Tabla is found from literature of 18th century, during which time it must have evolved.
Various Tabla Gharana's trace their lineage also to 18th century, starting with Siddhar Khan Dhaadhi a pakhavaj player in Emperor Muhammad Shah Rangile court. Sarod developed around mid 1800's. It probably evolved from various forms of Persian Rabab that were played in the Delhi courts over centuries. The origin of Sitar, on the other hand, is controversial. Some want to trace its origin to various Veenas found from very early days in India. Most probably Sitar evolved in 18th century out of Persian Setar (literally three strings), a string instrument used in Delhi courts from 13th century.
credited with the creation of Vijayanagar empire by inspiring Hakka and Bukka. He adorned the Sharada Peetha at Sringeri. Ragas are dealt with in detail in this work. Importance of raga alaapanas and the ways of doing it are dealt with. This was the first work to classify ragas as Melas (Parent) and Janya ragas, elaborated later by Ramamatya Swaramela Kalanidhi (16th century) and Venkatamakhi (17th century). The ragas are also classified as ragas and raginis on the basis of chandas.
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